Homelessness in the United States – Causes and Solutions
- Don Hilborn
- Sep 2
- 19 min read
🧭 TL;DR – Homelessness in the United States (2025 Summary)
🚨 Scale & Trends
771,480 people were homeless on a single night in January 2024 — an 18% increase from 2023.
Family homelessness rose 39%; child homelessness rose 33%.
Chronic homelessness is still rising, while veteran homelessness is down 55% since 2009.
Black people (12% of population) make up 32% of the homeless.
Adults 55+ account for 20% of homeless people; nearly half are unsheltered.
🗺️ Geography
California and New York lead in raw numbers.
NYC: mostly sheltered due to right-to-shelter law; LA: mostly unsheltered.
Homelessness is higher in coastal, high-cost cities.
🧩 Why People Become Homeless
Structural Causes:
Housing costs outpace wages; full-time workers can't afford rent in most U.S. counties.
Only 1 in 5 eligible households get federal rental assistance.
Poverty means people are one paycheck from homelessness.
Rent inflation (4.8%) and low vacancy rates squeeze the market.
System Failures:
People fall through gaps when leaving foster care, prisons, or hospitals.
Medical debt is a major trigger — some homeless people have health insurance but still can't afford care.
Public assistance cuts and underfunding worsen the crisis.
Personal/Relational Factors:
Mental illness, addiction, domestic violence, and disability are common contributors.
Substance use and homelessness often reinforce one another.
People of color face systemic racism, limiting housing and employment access.
Older adults struggle with ageism, illness, and low retirement income.
🌡️ External & Policy Pressures
Climate change and natural disasters displace communities.
End of COVID-era relief worsened housing precarity.
Criminalization (e.g., SCOTUS decision in Grants Pass v. Johnson) allows cities to punish outdoor sleeping.
System fragmentation (housing, health, justice not working together) blocks effective solutions.
✅ What Works
🏠 Housing Solutions:
Housing First: Immediate housing + optional services = proven success.
Rapid Re-Housing: Temporary help to get people back into homes quickly.
Affordable Housing Expansion: Essential to long-term impact.
🧠 Supportive Services:
Mental health, addiction treatment, job assistance, and trauma-informed care are critical.
⚙️ System Reforms:
Better coordination across agencies.
Emergency and non-congregate shelters for short-term safety.
Decriminalize homelessness to stop compounding poverty.
🛡️ Prevention & Income Supports
Target at-risk groups: youth, returning citizens, hospital discharges, DV survivors.
Expand living-wage jobs, tax credits, and social safety net programs (TANF, SSI, SNAP).
Invest in healthcare access, especially behavioral health.
Prepare for climate shocks with disaster relief and resilient housing.
📈 Bottom Line
The homelessness crisis is not inevitable. It's caused by a failure of housing policy, health systems, economic equity, and social supports. We know what works—but scaling effective solutions requires political will, funding, housing supply, and cross-sector cooperation.
Without action, homelessness will persist. With investment, the U.S. could replicate its success in reducing veteran homelessness—and make it rare, brief, and nonrecurring.
Full White Paper Overview
Homelessness has grown dramatically in the United States. The 2024 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) found that on a single night in January 2024 there were 771,480 people experiencing homelessness—about 23 people per 10,000, the highest figure since national counting began—and that this represented an 18 % increase from 2023[1]. Family homelessness increased 39 % and child homelessness increased 33 %[2]. Chronic homelessness continued to rise, while homelessness among veterans declined 55 % since 2009 owing to focused investment in housing and services [3]. Demographically, Black people represented 32 % of the homeless population despite constituting just 12 % of the U.S. population [4], and adults aged 55 and older accounted for one‑fifth of homeless people with almost half unsheltered [5]. An updated 2025 analysis by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis highlighted that homelessness grew from 1.75 per 1,000 people in 2022 to 2.3 per 1,000 in 2024, a 30 % increase [6]. The same report noted that rising housing costs, rent inflation, declining rental vacancies and displacement from natural disasters or immigration contributed to the increase [7].
Distribution of homelessness
Homelessness is geographically concentrated. Large coastal states such as California and New York account for a disproportionate share; California recorded at least 187,084 homeless people on the January 2024 count and New York State 158,019, corresponding to 48 and 81 homeless people per 10,000 population respectively [8]. Cities including New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Seattle and Denver have the largest homeless populations[9]. Shelter policies also vary: New York City has a legal right‑to‑shelter which means most people are housed in shelters, while Los Angeles has high unsheltered homelessness[10]. The share of unsheltered homeless individuals declined slightly between 2023 and 2024 but remains high in many locations [11].
Why people become homeless – major causes
Homelessness is not the result of a single event; it emerges when long‑standing social deficits combine with personal hardships and failures in public systems. Researchers at Canada’s Homeless Hub describe how “structural factors, systems failures and individual circumstances” intersect to put people on the streethomelesshub.ca. Structural factors are broad economic and social conditions, such as inadequate income, a shortage of affordable housing, poor access to health supports and discriminationhomelesshub.ca. When wages stagnate or rents soar, or when racialized groups face barriers to housing and employment, large numbers of people teeter on the edge of homelessness.
Systems failures occur when mainstream institutions don’t catch people who are in crisis. Examples include youth aging out of child welfare without stable housing, people discharged from hospitals or prisons with no plan for housing, or immigrants and refugees who arrive without adequate supporthomelesshub.ca. These gaps mean that vulnerable individuals often end up relying on emergency shelters rather than receiving the upstream help they need.
Individual and relational factors—such as trauma, sudden job loss or house fires, domestic violence, mental illness and addictions—can also precipitate homelessnesshomelesshub.ca. These personal crises are often exacerbated by the structural and systemic pressures described above. For example, a person with untreated mental illness living in poverty faces a far higher risk of losing housing, especially if there is no coordinated support after a hospital stay. This layering of structural stressors, institutional failures and personal vulnerabilities explains why effective responses must address all three domains rather than focusing on a single cause.Structural drivers
Infrastructural causes
Shortage of affordable housing
Housing costs have risen faster than wages; a full‑time worker must earn $25.82/hour to afford a modest two‑bedroom rental—far above the federal minimum wage—and only one in five eligible households receive federal rental assistance [12][13]. The lack of low‑cost housing is consistently cited as the primary cause of homelessness [12]. In Connecticut's Fairfield County, one of the wealthiest regions in the U.S., homelessness has surged—not because of mental illness or addiction, but due to skyrocketing housing costs that swept formerly middle-class families into shelters. Frontline workers themselves are struggling to afford housing. This highlights how economic instability, not individual behavior, often drives homelessness. In Seattle, housing costs surged dramatically, largely due to the tech boom led by Amazon. The city’s homelessness remains higher than in similarly poor areas with lower housing costs—showcasing how housing market dynamics can outweigh poverty levels. In Washington, D.C., a federal crackdown led by the "Making D.C. Safe and Beautiful Task Force" forcibly cleared homeless encampments, using police and National Guard. Critics argue these actions disrupted trust with outreach workers and lacked housing solutions, underscoring how punitive systems can exacerbate homelessness rather than address root causes. Recently, D.C.’s proposed city budget cut $17 million from rapid rehousing programs. Without these supports, families are at higher risk of prolonged shelter stays or falling deeper into homelessness—a result of systemic defunding of safety nets. A healthcare coalition reported that a woman named Mary, after a hospital stay for a serious infection, was discharged without placement due to lack of finances or insurance. Thankfully, a pilot medical respite program was launched to fill this gap—highlighting systemic failure in discharge planning for medically vulnerable individuals.
Poverty and stagnant incomes
Poverty forces households to choose between housing and necessities; losing income can quickly lead to homelessness [14]. In a 2024 survey, 34.7 % of adults said they could only afford housing for a month or less if they lost their main income [15]. A thoughtful analysis explains that homelessness is driven by complex circumstances that leave people forced “to choose between food, shelter, and other basic needs.” Poverty imposes choices no one should have to make—opting for essentials means sacrificing safety. The 2025 Homelessness Report by Self Financial (based on a 2024 survey of U.S. adults) found that 34.7% of respondents indicated they could only afford housing for a month or less if they lost their primary source of income.
Data from the U.S. Census Bureau (September 2024) shows that over 21 million renter households—nearly half (49.7 %)—spent more than 30% of their income on housing costs in 2023. That level of cost burden forces limited-income households into trade-offs between rent and necessities. Census.gov
Rising rents and low vacancy rates
Rental vacancy rates have been declining since 2009 and rent inflation remained high at 4.8 % in late 2024; research links rising rent prices to increases in homelessness [16][7]. The Census Bureau data, published via FRED (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis), shows the U.S. rental vacancy rate fell from 11.1% in 2009 to 6.8% in 2024—a substantial decline consistent with tightening rental markets over that period.iPropertyManagement.com
Supporting that trend, an analysis notes a 37.8% decline in the national rental vacancy rate since 2009, marking the lowest levels in decades—coupled with rapidly increasing rent pressures.
Insufficient safety nets and public assistance
Declines in public assistance and inadequacy of cash welfare and housing vouchers contribute to homelessness [17]. Only one in five eligible households receive rental assistance [13]. Declining Availability of Public Assistance
The National Homelessness Law Center reports that “the declining value and availability of public assistance is another source of increasing poverty and homelessness,” citing how diminished support translates into greater housing instability. The National Alliance to End Homelessness highlights that cuts to Medicaid and imposition of stricter work requirements would exacerbate homelessness, noting that most permanent supportive housing residents rely on Medicaid for essential services. Only one in five eligible households receive rental assistance:
Federal Shortfall in Rental Assistance The Urban–Brookings Tax Policy Center notes that due to underfunding, only one in five eligible households actually receives federal housing assistance.The Guardian+15Urban Institute+15Center on Budget and Policy Priorities+15
U.S. Policy Research Findings A peer-reviewed study in Russell Sage Foundation Journal confirms that “only one household of every eligible five receives [rental assistance].”rsfjournal.org
Urban Institute and HUD Data The Urban Institute discusses that federal housing programs assisted approximately 4.5 million households in 2024, but proposed budget cuts would reduce this subsidies count to about 2.4 million—leaving many eligible households unserved.The Sun+15Urban Institute+15usich.gov+15
Cost of health care
Lack of affordable health care pushes people into homelessness by creating medical debt and preventing treatment of chronic conditions [17]. Medical debt as an entry into homelessness:
A 2024 study published in Health Affairs emphasizes that medical debt can drain savings and significantly increase the risk of homelessness, particularly for individuals already struggling. It illustrates how healthcare cost burdens destabilize living situations and contribute directly to housing loss. Audacy+2National Alliance to End Homelessness+2Health Affairs+1
A comprehensive University of Washington study found that having medical debt extended durations of homelessness by an average of two years. The study showed that debt—often incurred even with insurance—resulted in longer and recurring homeless episodes. UW Homepage+1
Coverage of this research in Public Health Post details how unpaid medical bills lengthened individuals’ periods of homelessness, sometimes by over two years, highlighting the torment of chronic debt. Health Affairs+6Public Health Post+6UW Homepage+6
Reporting by The Guardian noted that over 100 million Americans have medical debt, and for many, it becomes a barrier to housing stability. A resident was burdened by debt despite Medicaid assurances of full coverage—underscoring systemic failures. The Guardian+1
A JAMA Open Network study, cited in Axios, links medical debt with sharply elevated risks of eviction, food insecurity, and poor health outcomes—even among those with insurance—demonstrating a nationwide pattern of housing instability tied to healthcare spending. AP News+7Axios+7Los Angeles Times+7
Prevention of care and mental health implications
Recent Axios reporting emphasizes that medical debt doubles the likelihood that adults will delay or avoid mental health treatment. This hampers timely care and exacerbates chronic conditions that can increase the risk of housing loss. Axios
The U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness outlines how limited access to healthcare leads to medical debt, decline in health, income loss, and ultimately heightened homelessness risk—making the link between care scarcity and housing insecurity unsurprising yet pressing.
Systemic racism and inequities
People of color, especially Black and Native American populations, are over‑represented in the homeless population; disparities are tied to systemic racism and unequal access to housing and health care [4].
Climate change and natural disasters
Municipalities reported increases in homelessness due to displacement from natural disasters and immigration [18]. Climate-related disasters, heat waves and wildfires destroy housing and endanger unsheltered individuals.
End of pandemic relief programs
The expiration of COVID‑19 era eviction moratoria and rental assistance programs contributed to the sharp increase in homelessness in 2023–24[1].
A systematic review of studies across high‑income countries found a mean prevalence of 76.2 % for any current mental disorder among homeless adults, with 36.7 % experiencing alcohol use disorder, 21.7 % drug use disorders and 12.4 % schizophrenia spectrum disorders [19]. Severe mental illness affects about 16 % of homeless single adults [17]. Untreated mental illness and substance use both increase risk of homelessness and complicate exit.
Domestic violence and family conflict
About half of surveyed cities reported domestic violence as a primary cause of homelessness [17]. Domestic violence survivors may flee abusive homes without resources.1. Historical Survey Evidence (U.S.)
A longstanding ACLU report indicates that in 2005, 50% of U.S. cities surveyed identified domestic violence as a primary cause of homelessness. Examples included cities like Burlington, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, and Seattle — highlighting the pervasive role of abuse in housing crises. newdestinyhousing.org+6American Civil Liberties Union+6Wikipedia+6. Urban Institute’s 2023 survey in Los Angeles found that 44% of unhoused women said domestic violence was the primary cause of their homelessness—indicating the issue remains significant in recent years. The 19th
National-Level Risk: IPV and Homelessness
A 2025 Johns Hopkins University Health report states that women who experience intimate partner violence (IPV) are four times more likely to experience homelessness than those who do not—a striking indicator of the causal relationship. newdestinyhousing.org+9Bloomberg American Health Initiative+9Los Angeles Times+9
Addiction
Substance use can precipitate homelessness and be exacerbated by homelessness; the relationship is bidirectional [17]. A peer-reviewed study confirms the reciprocal relationship: “there is a bidirectional relationship between these disorders and homelessness, such that at times, substance use disorder (SUD) can lead to homelessness, and in other cases, homelessness can lead to SUD.” The study also highlights how homelessness is associated with more severe substance use and worse health outcomes.
Qualitative Insights from Emergency Departments: A qualitative study involving emergency department patients who were homeless and using substances found that social relationships are pivotal in linking substance use and homelessness. Participants described how substance use can cause relationship breakdowns, which may lead to homelessness—and conversely, how isolation and stress while homeless can intensify substance use.
Behavioral Health Frameworks: According to Radias Health, “Substance abuse can lead to homelessness due to job loss, financial difficulties, and the breakdown of family support systems. Conversely, the harsh realities of experiencing homelessness can exacerbate addiction, with individuals turning to drugs or alcohol as a form of self-medication.”
Physical disability and chronic illness
Disabilities limit earning potential and can cause costly medical bills. Survey respondents identified disability and chronic health issues among the top perceived causes [20]. 1. Data on High Disability Prevalence Among People Experiencing Homelessness
In San Francisco, a 2024 Point‑in‑Time count review revealed that nearly 49% of unhoused individuals reported having a disabling condition, with 29% citing a physical disability. Of those, 71% confirmed their disability hindered their ability to work, secure housing, or perform daily self-care—directly showing how disability limits income and stability.
SSI Insufficiency Erodes Financial Security: According to a 2025 analysis by Truthout, Supplemental Security Disability Income (SSDI) has lost approximately 20% of its real buying power since 2010 due to inflation outpacing cost-of-living adjustments. This leaves many disabled Americans struggling to afford living expenses or save for emergencies.
Chronic Health Conditions Impede Employment and Erode Income: A detailed report from NACCHO explains that people with disabilities often face wage discrimination, subminimum pay, and limited access to income supports like SSI. They also confront income caps and asset restrictions, making it difficult to accumulate savings or secure stable housing.
Re‑entry from institutions (prisons, mental hospitals, foster care)
People released from prison, hospitals or the foster care system face barriers to housing and employment, increasing homelessness risk [17]. Individuals Released from Prison:
North Carolina (2024): Among close to 20,000 people released from state prisons, 28 percent (5,610 individuals) were identified as homeless immediately upon release—most released directly onto the streets rather than to shelters or housing programs. This demonstrates how post-incarceration reentry often fails to provide housing pathways. Wikipedia+9North Carolina Health News+9dac.nc.gov+9
Broader U.S. Context: Formerly incarcerated people are nearly ten times more likely to become homeless compared to the general population, spotlighting systemic reentry barriers and housing instability. Prison Policy Initiative+1
Patients Discharged from Hospitals
England (2022–23): At least 4,200 patients were discharged from NHS hospitals into homelessness (“no fixed abode”), including those leaving maternity, stroke, and HIV-related wards—many still in need of medical care. CSG Justice Center+15homelessnessimpact.org+15The Independent+15
Youth Leaving Foster Care
United States Overview: Approximately half of youth exiting the foster care system at age 18 become homeless, reflecting alarming gaps in post-foster support and housing safety nets.
Aging
Adults aged 55 and older represent roughly one‑fifth of homeless individuals, and nearly half are unsheltered [5]. Older adults face health issues, age discrimination and limited retirement savings. 1. Older Adults Make Up ~20% of Homeless and Nearly Half Are Unsheltered
The 2024 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) indicates that about one in every five individuals experiencing homelessness was aged 55 or older (including both 55–64 and 65+ cohorts), and nearly 46% of those older adults were living in unsheltered settings like streets or vehicles. Forbes+6LeadingAge+6Samaritan Inn+6HUD User+2Samaritan Inn+2
A Bipartisan Policy Center summary of the 2024 AHAR findings echoes these figures: more than 104,000 people aged 55–64 and 42,150 people over 64 were counted as homeless, with nearly half unsheltered. Colorado Coalition for the Homeless+3Bipartisan Policy Center+3Samaritan Inn+3
Older Adults Face Health Challenges, Employment Discrimination, and Insufficient Savings
A MarketWatch profile shared the story of DeDe Hancock, a woman who experienced homelessness for seven years after losing her job. She is now housed, but the case reflects a broader trend: older adults often endure health issues, inflated housing costs, and insufficient support, with vulnerabilities that mirror the experiences of much younger age groups. MarketWatch
A Business Insider article outlined how Linda Lara, a senior in her 60s living on just $1,547/month in Social Security and subsidized housing, still struggles to afford basic needs—and must continue working to survive. The piece noted that over 20% of people over 50 have no retirement savings, while over half fear outlasting their savings. Business Insider
Research highlights age discrimination in employment: as many as 50–80% of Americans aged 50+ report experiencing age bias at work—including being overlooked for hiring, promotion, or facing termination—demonstrating systemic barriers to stability. MarketWatch+8Wikipedia+8Kiplinger+8
Systemic and policy factors
Deinstitutionalization and closure of mental hospitals: Beginning in the 1960s the United States closed many state psychiatric hospitals, discharging patients to community care systems that were never adequately funded. Combined with limited supportive housing, this left many people with serious mental illness vulnerable to homelessness [21].
Mass incarceration and punitive policies: Criminal records make it difficult to secure housing or employment. In June 2024 the U.S. Supreme Court’s City of Grants Pass v. Johnson decision allowed cities to penalize sleeping outdoors, effectively criminalizing homelessness in some jurisdictions [22].
Immigration and asylum seekers: Municipalities reported increased homelessness due to new arrivals lacking resources and shelter space [18].
System fragmentation: Homeless services, health care, housing and justice systems operate separately. Lack of coordination impedes effective responses [23].
Solutions and evidence‑based approaches
Ending homelessness requires addressing structural deficits, providing evidence‑based interventions and targeting prevention. Solutions fall into three broad areas: housing and supports; improving crisis response; and prevention.
1 – Housing and supportive services
Housing First – permanent supportive housing
Housing First places people into permanent housing without preconditions and provides voluntary supportive services. Randomized controlled trials show strong results. In Denver’s Supportive Housing Social Impact Bond program, 80 % of participants offered supportive housing obtained housing versus 18 % in the control group; they were housed for 654 days versus 94 days[25]. The program reduced emergency department visits and jail stays and led to greater use of community‑based care[26]. The combined reduction in crisis health care, jail and shelter costs saved more than $15,000 per person annually [27]. A Santa Clara County trial found 86 % of the treatment group were ever housed compared with 36 % of controls [28]. Housing First programs for veterans have halved veteran homelessness since 2009 [3].
Rapid re‑housing
Provides short‑term rental assistance and services to quickly move people back into housing; particularly effective for families. It is part of Housing First and emphasises time‑limited subsidies and case management. Evidence indicates it stabilizes families and reduces shelter stays but needs adequate housing supply [24].
Increase supply of affordable housing
The U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) recommends maximising use of existing federal housing assistance (vouchers and public housing) and creating new safe, affordable housing [24]. Economists modeling housing and homelessness find that expanding housing vouchers is more effective at reducing homelessness than increasing rent subsidies or offering cash transfers [32]. Zoning reform and incentives for building low‑cost units can expand supply.
Permanent supportive housing for people with disabilities
Combining long‑term housing with mental health, substance‑use treatment and case management helps people with serious mental illness and reduces hospital and justice‑system costs [26]. HUD’s inventory of permanent supportive housing more than doubled since 2007 yet demand still far outpaces supply [29].
Trauma‑informed supportive services
Voluntary supportive services—mental health care, addiction treatment, health care, employment assistance—are critical to help people retain housing. The USICH plan calls for strengthening systems to address disabilities and behavioral health [24].
2 – Improving homelessness response systems
Coordinated entry and data sharing: Integrate homeless service providers, health care, criminal justice and social services so that people can access resources efficiently. USICH recommends evaluating and improving coordinated entry systems and using housing problem‑solving to divert people from shelters [23].
Increase emergency and non‑congregate shelters: Provide safe, dignified shelter as a short‑term measure, especially during extreme weather. Non‑congregate options like hotel rooms or tiny homes reduce spread of disease and accommodate families [23].
De‑criminalize homelessness: Evidence suggests punitive approaches do not reduce homelessness and impose fines or jail time that entrench poverty. Advocacy organizations call for reversing ordinances that criminalize sleeping in public and instead investing in housing and services [22].
All‑of‑government coordination: USICH’s strategy emphasizes collaboration among federal, state and local governments to align housing, health and workforce programs [23].
3 – Prevention and income supports
Targeted prevention for at‑risk groups
Interventions should address people leaving prison, foster care, hospitals, military service and survivors of domestic violence. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs reduced veteran homelessness by more than 50 % since 2010 through dedicated housing subsidies, case management and early intervention at discharge[30]. Predictive models using data from health and social services can identify individuals at high risk and connect them with assistance[31].
Employment and income supports
Expand access to living‑wage jobs, job training and unemployment insurance. Poverty and unemployment are top public perceptions of causes of homelessness; in a 2024 survey 20 % of respondents cited unemployment and 15 % cited domestic abuse as the greatest contributing factors[33]. Higher minimum wages, earned income tax credits and child tax credits can reduce poverty.
Strengthen social safety net
Increase cash assistance (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families), Supplemental Security Income, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program and health coverage to help low‑income households meet basic needs. Only one in five eligible households receive rental assistance [13]; expanding vouchers and preventing benefit cliff effects can prevent homelessness [32].
Expand access to health and behavioral health care
Ensure universal access to mental health and substance‑use treatment; integrate health care with housing. Given the high prevalence of mental disorders among homeless people [19], accessible services are crucial.
Support for children, youth and older adults
Tailored programs for families with children, unaccompanied youth and older adults—such as family shelters, transitional living programs, educational support and age‑friendly housing—are needed. Child homelessness rose 33 % in 2024 [2].
Mitigate climate impacts
Develop climate‑resilient housing, provide disaster relief and relocation assistance and create community cooling/warming centers. Natural disasters and extreme weather contribute to homelessness [18].
Discussion: balancing solutions and challenges
The evidence shows that housing‑first approaches combined with voluntary supportive services are the most effective strategy to end chronic homelessness. Randomized trials and program evaluations demonstrate large improvements in housing stability, health outcomes and public cost savings[25][27]. Permanent supportive housing yields cost savings by reducing emergency health care, shelter and justice‑system expenditures [27]. Rapid re‑housing is effective for families and people with moderate needs when adequate rental units are available [24]. Targeted programs for veterans show how dedicated funding and coordination can dramatically reduce homelessness [30].
However, scaling these solutions faces significant challenges:
· Housing supply constraints and high costs limit the number of units available for Housing First, and building new permanent supportive housing requires substantial capital [34].
· Political opposition: Some residents resist affordable housing developments; punitive ordinances and the 2024 Supreme Court decision allow municipalities to criminalize sleeping outside [22].
· Funding limitations: Federal programs like Housing Choice Vouchers are underfunded relative to need. Expanding vouchers to everyone eligible could dramatically reduce homelessness but would require higher appropriations and administrative capacity [32].
· Workforce shortages: Homeless services providers face burnout and turnover; training and fair wages are needed to attract and retain staff.
Conclusion
Homelessness in the United States has reached record levels, driven by structural factors like housing shortages, poverty, stagnant wages, systemic racism and climate change. Individual vulnerabilities—mental illness, substance use, domestic violence—and systemic issues such as mass incarceration and deinstitutionalization interact to push people into homelessness. Evidence from randomized trials and program evaluations shows that permanent supportive housing under a Housing First model, supplemented by rapid re‑housing, rental assistance, mental and behavioral health services and targeted prevention, can markedly reduce homelessness and yield public cost savings. Achieving lasting reductions will require expanding the supply of affordable housing, strengthening income and safety‑net supports, improving coordination across systems and addressing structural inequities that place certain groups at higher risk. Without comprehensive investment and policy change, the crisis will likely persist; with it, the United States could replicate the success seen in veteran homelessness and move toward making homelessness rare, brief and nonrecurring.
Footnotes
[1]: U.S. Dep’t of Hous. & Urban Dev., 2024 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report 188–207 (Dec. 2024)[1].
[2]: Id. at 215–223[2].
[3]: Id. at 225–235[3].
[4]: Id. at 243–253[4].
[5]: Id. at 236–242[5].
[6]: Lisa Camner McKay, Who is homeless in the United States? A 2025 update, Fed. Reserve Bank of Minneapolis (2025)[6].
[7]: Id. at 418–431[7].
[8]: 2025 Homelessness Report, Self Financial (2025)[8].
[9]: Id. at 76–103[9].
[10]: Lisa Camner McKay, supra note 6, at 463–476[10].
[11]: Id. at 482–485[11].
[12]: Nat’l Coal. for the Homeless, Why Are People Homeless? (updated 2022)[12].
[13]: Jill Khadduri et al., Housing Matters: Evidence Supports Housing First, Urban Inst. (Feb. 14 2024)[13].
[14]: Nat’l Coal. for the Homeless, supra note 12, at 92–99[14].
[15]: 2025 Homelessness Report, supra note 8, at 271–277[15].
[16]: Lisa Camner McKay, supra note 6, at 418–429[16].
[17]: Nat’l Coal. for the Homeless, supra note 12, at 106–135[17].
[18]: Lisa Camner McKay, supra note 6, at 430–432[18].
[19]: Stefan Gutwinski et al., The prevalence of mental disorders among homeless people in high‑income countries: An updated systematic review, PLOS Med. 18(8):e1003750 (2021)[19].
[20]: 2025 Homelessness Report, supra note 8, at 199–210[20].
[21]: Michael H. Beddow et al., Why Has the US Homeless Population Been Rising?, EconoFact (Jan. 2025)[21].
[22]: Britannica ProCon, Housing First – Top 10 Pros and Cons (updated July 8 2025)[22].
[23]: U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, All In: Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness 619–647 (Dec. 2022)[23].
[24]: Id. at 582–616[24].
[25]: Jill Khadduri et al., supra note 13, at 147–158[25].
[26]: Id. at 170–190[26].
[27]: Id. at 196–218[27].
[28]: Id. at 160–167[28].
[29]: U.S. Dep’t of Hous. & Urban Dev., supra note 1, at 328–344[29].
[30]: Malia Lazu, Confronting homelessness: Experts suggest new strategies, Harvard Gazette (Jan. 24 2024)[30].
[31]: Id. at 358–370[31].
[32]: Lisa Camner McKay, supra note 6, at 500–509[32].
[33]: 2025 Homelessness Report, supra note 8, at 192–204[33].
[34]: Michael H. Beddow et al., supra note 21, at 190–204[34].
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[13] [25] [26] [27] [28] Housing First Is Still the Best Approach to Ending Homelessness | Housing Matters
[19] The prevalence of mental disorders among homeless people in high-income countries: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis - PMC
[21] [34] Why Has the US Homeless Population Been Rising? | Econofact
[22] Homelessness | Pros, Cons, Debate, Arguments, Housing First policies, & Shelters | Britannica
[23] [24] All_In.pdf
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